Forensic Photography Job Description, Salary and Career Requirements

Forensic Photography Job Description, Salary and Career Requirements

Forensic photographers work with law enforcement to record and preserve evidence in a criminal case. The photographer creates a record of a crime scene that police officers and investigators can use to determine how a crime occurred. Medical examiners use forensic photographs to analyze the details of a death such as the position of a body and injuries.

Forensic Photography Job Description

Photographers who work with law enforcement must be knowledgeable on the various types of equipment used in forensic photography, such as infrared or ultraviolet light, to select the appropriate imaging tool to collect photographic evidence. The photographer uses the tools and processes to develop clear images for law enforcement to analyze a crime scene. Individuals may also prepare the photographs that are used in criminal court proceedings.
Forensic photographers also capture images of victims and their injuries, which medical examiners use to determine a cause of death. Forensic photographers may be required to testify in court proceedings to explain the photographic enhancements or techniques used in the collection of evidence.

Forensic Photography Salary

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the annual median salary for photographers in general, in 2012, was $28,490 (www.bls.gov). Also, employment for photographers between 2010 and 2020 was expected to grow by 13%, overall.

Forensic Photography Care Requirements

The BLS reports scientific photographers may need to obtain a degree to qualify for a position in this field. However, some law enforcement agencies, such as in Virginia, may hire forensic photographers with a high school education and completed courses in photography, processing and forensics.
A degree program can offer courses in different approaches in photography including photojournalism, scientific photography or commercial photography. Students may learn all approaches in the field, but specialize in scientific courses for a career in forensics. In a degree program, students learn lighting techniques, shutter speeds, camera mechanics, digital imaging and the use of color in photography.
Forensic photography workshops train students in the procedures for collecting evidence, the proper method to photograph a crime scene, photographing fingerprints and the use of chemicals at a crime scene, such as luminol. Workshops can also include instruction in the software programs used to process forensic photographs.

source: education-portal.com

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How to Become a Forensic Pathologist

How to Become a Forensic Pathologist

To become a forensic pathologist, one must usually undergo a minimum of thirteen years of education and training. This is post-high school education. The first step is to obtain an undergraduate degree in a medical or scientific field. A four year medical program will ensue afterwards, along the student to become an M.D. A licensing exam must be passed before this milestone, however.

After becoming an M.D., one must enroll in a four year residency in anatomic and clinical pathology. To become a forensic pathologist, one must enter an extra one year residency in forensic pathology. This residency will offer legal system training on top of the medical training already received.

The career field can only be entered after passing the regional pathology and forensic pathology board exams.

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Forensic Pathologist Job Description

Forensic Pathologist Job Description

Forensic pathologists are medical professionals who mostly study diseases of the body. This is called pathology. Typically, forensic pathologists are a combination between a doctor and a detective. They may work with crime institutions to determine various factors in a case that have been disputed. This may include cause of death, and forensic pathologists will often work in autopsy concerning murders, suicides, or manslaughter cases.

A forensic pathologist’s main job is to help the justice system in the solving of high-profile cases. These professionals are often called to bear expert testimony in court concerning the case. Their opinions can have a huge impact on the outcome of the case. They may also have to give their opinions to the media if it is an extremely high-profile case, so they must be outgoing and well-spoken.

While forensic pathologists often deal with high-profile court cases involving homicides and manslaughter, these professionals also offer their duties to non-suspicious deaths, those that died of natural causes.

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Forensic Pathologist Salary

Forensic Pathologist Salary in US

Many factors will raise or lower a forensic pathologist’s salary level. Educational level and experience play a major role, as they do in every profession. Geographic location will also determine income, since pay-grades will vary from state to state. The employment opportunities for a forensic pathologist may make or break the bank account. Typically, government based forensic pathologists will rake in a better income than those working in a hospital.

The average of forensic pathologist salary in the United States is about $244,000 a year, or $118 an hour. This is a well-deserved pay-grade, and higher than a number of other professionals in the health and medical fields, though not all. Pathologists in the top 10th percentile could see up to $335,000 or higher in a year. This is equal to $161 or higher per hour. The lowest 10th percentile sees about $177,000 or less per year (about $85 an hour or less). However, this is still a very high annual income, and nothing to be ashamed of. The best numbers can be found in the middle 50%. These professionals will make between $209,000 and $292,000 every year. This is an hourly payment of between $101 and $140.

Benefits will also add to a pathologist’s salary. Between social security, pension, health care benefits, and paid time off, a forensic pathologist could make a salary with compensation of about $326,000 a year. This is a hefty sum of money.

Forensic Pathologist Salary in Other Countries (UK, Australia and Canada)

Typically, a forensic pathologist in Canada may make around C$81,000 on average. Australian forensic pathologists will make roughly the same, at around A$85,000 on average.
The United Kingdom is in roughly the same area as the others. A forensic pathologist will make around £50,000 annually. This rounds to about $80,000 in America.

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Forensic Accountants Job Description

Forensic Accountants Job Description

Forensic accountants can have a number of duties. However, they all relate to financial issues that must be examined in court. Some specific duties include litigation support, dispute resolution, and investigation.

Forensic accountants perform investigations when criminal matters have occurred within a business. This can include internal theft, bribery, insurance fraud, money laundering, falsification of financial statements, and securities fraud. Many of these investigations are considered “white collared crimes”, relating to the business world and their financial accounts. Once the investigation is complete, other actions may be taken, such as law suit or criminal prosecution.

During litigation support, a forensic accountant presents factual information about financial issues related to the litigation. They may also be responsible for defining the amount of damages that are sustained by members involved in legal disputes before the case is presented to the court.

In dispute resolution, a forensic accountant can be used as an expert witness. They may be responsible for presenting necessary evidence to the court. This evidence can be used in the resolution of a financial dispute.

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Forensic Accountant Job Overview

Forensic Accountant Job Overview

Forensic Accountants work for accounting firms or independently as freelance consultants. They investigate incidents of suspected financial misconduct or white-collar crime, and help prepare evidence that may be used in civil or criminal trials, utilizing auditing and accounting investigative skills. In a nutshell they investigate financial misconduct by inspecting records, collecting evidence, and interviewing; may act as expert witness in civil and criminal litigation.

Forensic accounting is often referred to as “investigative accounting.” The term forensic refers to legal proceedings or argumentation presented in a court of law. Forensic Accountants are trained to analyze and verify financial records. They prepare reports that may be used in evidence at a trial, and may be called as expert witnesses, an independent authority, to testify at a trial.

Forensic Accountants analyze, interpret, and summarize complex financial statements and business-related issues in a manner which is both understandable and properly supported by evidence. Accountants coordinate fraud investigations with outside investigators, attorneys, and criminal prosecutors. They review suspect files referred by insurance underwriters and report cases of suspected insurance fraud to government agencies and the courts. If a company files an insurance claim after suffering a fire, the insurance company may hire a Forensic Accountant to verify that a company’s reported loss was as great as the amount claimed.

Besides working on business-related investigations, Forensic Accountants often work on criminal cases. They may be retained by the United States District Attorney’s Office, the courts, or regional and local police forces.

Forensic Accountants work in an office setting, using computers and telephones. Some travel is required, usually to gather information and present evidence at trials. Forensic Accountants work long hours under tight schedules, especially on litigation about to go to trial. This can be a good career choice if you are analytical, can work under deadline pressure, and have good problem-solving ability.

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Forensic Accounting Salary (According to the BLS)

Forensic Accounting Salary (According to the BLS)

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average salary for all accountants and auditors is $61,690 per year, or $29.66 per hour. However, because forensic accounting is a more specialized field of accounting, you can expect forensic accounting salaries to be higher than average.

In fact, the average forensic accounting salary is closer to $73,000 as of 2012, though individual salaries range from about $45,000 to over $115,000 depending on your employer, location, industry, experience and education. Forensic accountants who have earned a masters degree will generally receive a higher salary, and your forensic accounting salary is expected to increase as you gain experience.

In general, if you work for a larger company or financial institution, your forensic accounting pay will be higher than that of a forensic accountant working for the government, a police department or a nonprofit organization. However, some of the highest salaries are earned by forensic accountants who start their own consultancies. This is because self-employed consultants or small private consultancy firms have much less overhead than larger companies. Thus, more of the earnings can go toward your pay than into the business itself.

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Suggested Forensic Science Research Topics

Suggested Forensic Science Research Topics

The following research topics were collected from various forensic scientific working groups and their publications, the National Academy of Sciences publication, the National Institute of Justice website, and personal solicitations
by the CSDIAI Science and Practices Committee. Funding for research is available through various sources including the National Institute of Justice[http://www.nij.gov/funding].

Accuracy & Bias:

1. The effects of contextual bias in forensic examinations, and the quantification of that error. [NAS Publication]
2. Develop studies to measure and understand the influence of bias during the application of the ACE-V method. [SWGFAST]
3. Blind Verification - Determine if or when blind verification is an effective quality assurance measure. [SWGFAST]
4. Determine the accuracy of friction ridge comparison conclusions in adjudicated cases. [SWGFAST]
5. Examiner Consistency - Develop additional or refine existing tools to improve consistency in the interpretation of friction ridge images, feature selection, and decisions in ACE among examiners. Develop tools to assist the examiner measure the quality of friction ridge impressions during the analysis stage. [SWGFAST]
6. Develop additional or refine existing studies to measure the impact of various factors that result in examination errors, and suggest practices to reduce them. [SWGFAST]
7. Further explore the cognitive processes friction ridge examiners use when performing examinations. [SWGFAST]
8. Develop additional or refine existing studies on how aspects in vision science, such as form and color blindness, affect an examiner’s ability to conduct friction ridge examinations. [SWGFAST]
9. Research other psychological or physiological conditions that may affect an examiner’s ability to conduct friction ridge examinations. [SWGFAST]
10. Assess the effectiveness of various friction ridge examination quality assurance measures (e.g., percentage of casework that is technically reviewed, frequency of proficiency testing, instrument and equipment calibration and maintenance, and frequency of reagent testing). [SWGFAST]
11. Develop additional or refine existing statistical or probability models regarding friction ridge examination. [SWGFAST]
12. Conduct additional studies regarding the objective measure of quality and quantity of friction ridge detail required to conclude whether two or more simultaneous impressions originated from the same source. [SWGFAST]
13. Establish and mandate standards for procedures, terminology or range of conclusions for the collection, examination or testimony of footwear and tire track examiners. [SWGTREAD]
14. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis:

• research in human error and contextual bias
• proficiency testing in bloodstain pattern analysis and the establishment of protocols for bloodstain pattern analysis methods and practices [SWGSTAIN]

Certification & Accreditation:

1. Compare the performance of certified and non-certified friction ridge examiners. This assessment may include quality assurance measures such as accuracy of conclusions, competency and proficiency testing, existence of standard operation procedures, and adherence to those procedures. It may also take into consideration factors such as hiring qualifications for practitioners, training and continuing education, workloads, and compensation. [SWGFAST]
2. Compare the performance of accredited and non-accredited friction ridge examination service providers. This assessment may include quality assurance measures such as accuracy of conclusions, competency and proficiency testing, existence of standard operation procedures, and adherence to those procedures. It may also take into consideration factors such as hiring qualifications for practitioners, training and continuing education, workloads, and compensation. [SWGFAST]
3. Develop a comprehensive standard training program for latent and tenprint examiners that incorporates SWGFAST documents and can be implemented on a national scale. [SWGFAST]
4. Status of Tenprint Identification Agencies - Assess the status of tenprint operations within identification agencies regarding issues to include hiring standards, training, workloads, and compensation. [SWGFAST]

AFIS:

1. Creation of baseline standards / common interface for AFIS interoperability: baseline standards —to be used with computer algorithms— to map, record, and recognize features in fingerprint images, and a research agenda for the continued improvement, refinement, and characterization of the accuracy of these algorithms (including quantification of error rates). [NAS Publication]
2. Using large AFIS databases, conduct a study that measures the likelihood of finding close non-matches based upon the location within a fingerprint and specificity of these features and their arrangements. Furthermore, assess the ability of the examiner to discriminate these close non-matches. [SWGFAST]
3. Automated Distortion Recognition and Compensation in Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS) - Develop additional or refine existing distortion recognition and compensation tools for use in automated fingerprint identification systems that increase reliability and accuracy. [SWGFAST]
4. A statistical analysis of minutia in specific locations within latent prints, utilizing the AFIS system. [contact Roy Marzioli]

Chemical Processing & Laboratory Analysis:

1. A comparison processing techniques that are available for bloody prints, and their pros and cons (fixing of LCV, hazards, multiple steps, destruction of surfaces): specifically, comparison testing of LCV to Amido Black. [Contra Costa County Sheriff’s Office Forensics Laboratory]
2. A critical analysis of lighting techniques: ALS vs. laser, LED flashlights vs. incandescent bulbs [Contra Costa County Sheriff’s Office Forensics Laboratory]
3. Sequential processing of evidence containing bloody fingerprints [Contra Costa County Sheriff’s Office Forensics Laboratory]
4. Conduct additional research to determine if there is a reliable and accurate process to measure the age of friction ridge impressions. [SWGFAST]
5. Effects of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Exposure on Latent Print Residues -Develop additional or refine existing studies regarding the effects of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear exposure events on latent print residues. [SWGFAST]
6. Develop additional or refine existing method(s) for the detection of latent prints on human skin. [SWGFAST]
7. Develop additional or refine existing research regarding the composition of latent print residue. [SWGFAST]
8. Persistence of Skin and Reproducibility of Level 2 and 3 Level Detail - Further assess and develop additional studies on the reproducibility and persistence of Level 2 and Level 3 detail. Persistence relates to variations in the same friction ridge skin over an extended period of time, considering external impacts (e.g. environmental changes, occupational exposure, aging and chemotherapy or other medical treatment) Reproducibility relates to the extent of variations among multiple impressions of the same friction ridge skin. [SWGFAST]
9. Develop additional or refine existing chemical, physical, or spectral imaging processes to enhance friction ridge detail based on the specific substrate or composition of latent print residue. [SWGFAST]
10. Compare existing chemical, physical or spectral imaging processes to determine which produce the highest quality and quantity of latent prints per substrate, to include the cost per application and ease of use. [SWGFAST]
11. Develop additional quality control standards for use in reagent testing. [SWGFAST]
12. Superimposed Friction Ridge Impressions - Explore means to determine the chronology of the placement of superimposed friction ridge impressions. Develop additional or refine existing tools to separate superimposed friction ridge impressions. [SWGFAST]
13. Assess the discriminating strength of friction ridge skin features such as cuts, lacerations, abrasions, scars, creases, warts and blisters in friction ridge examination. [SWGFAST]
14. Controlled substances:

• More sensitive detection tools to use at crime scenes.
• Improved tools and techniques to identify controlled substances, including emerging “designer drugs,” and evolving manufacturing techniques for existing drugs.
• New, faster and more efficient tools and techniques to analyze controlled substances in the laboratory. [NIJ]

   15. Digital evidence

• Mobile and Cellular Device Forensics Tools
• Digital Evidence Investigative Tools
• Digital Evidence Analysis Tools
• Digital Forensic Training
• Digital Forensics Standards and Capacity Building [NIJ]

   16. Impression and pattern evidence can help link a suspect or tool to a particular crime scene. New or improved techniques to identify, collect, analyze and preserve impression and pattern evidence would greatly aid the forensic community. NIJ funds the following impression and pattern evidence research:

• Studying the effects of time and environmental factors, such as weather damage, on forms of impression evidence.
• Investigating unique characteristics that may distinguish one type of impression evidence to the exclusion of all others (e.g., what characteristics make a fingerprint unique).
• Developing sophisticated tools to take precise physical measurements of evidence.
• Improving the National Integrated Ballistics Information Network. [NIJ]

17. Questioned Documents

• More efficient, highly sensitive techniques to analyze documents while preserving them.
• Computer - based methods to analyze handwriting and verify signatures.
• Approaches that expand the scientific basis of questioned document examinations. [NIJ]

18. Trace Evidence

• The development of new tools and techniques to detect, collect and preserve evidence from crime scenes.
• Instruments that decrease the time and labor needed for trace evidence analysis.
• New approaches and enhancement of current approaches to interpreting trace evidence data [NIJ]

19. Firearms -Determine the degree to which firearms - related toolmarks are unique or even to quantitatively characterize the probability of uniqueness. Assessing uniqueness at, say, a submicroscopic level, though probably technically possible, would be extremely difficult and time consuming compared with less definitive but more practical and generally available methods at the macroscopic level. [SWGGUN]

20. A survey of sequential processing techniques of different agencies and a quantitative measure of their efficiency. [Contra Costa County Sheriff’s Office Forensics Laboratory]


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CSDIAI Science & Practices Committee 2011
Hillary Moses
Doug Coleman
Stephanie Souza
Freddie Moore

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Forensic Psychology Major Requirements

Forensic Psychology Major Requirements

The Forensic Psychology major is designed for students who are interested in the relationship between psychology and the criminal justice system. The mission of the Forensic Psychology major is to enhance students’ understanding of individual behavior, in terms of its biological, cognitive, social and emotional components and their interaction, and its effects on the broader community. Students will learn to employ an empirical approach to understand human behavior. The major prepares students for a number of careers and graduate work in psychology,social work, law enforcement, or other criminal justice professions.

Prerequisite: PSY 101, which does not count toward the 40 credits required in the major

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Forensic Psychology - Criminal Profiling Guide

Forensic Psychology - Criminal Profiling Guide


 Profiling Definition

The first task of profiling is estimating the psychological and sociological characteristics of a criminal. The reader may be familiar with this practice from film and television– movies like Silence of the Lambs and Seven have prominently featured this type of profiling. Criminal investigators use evidence collected from the crime scene, the nature of the crime, the location of the crime scene, and the type of victims being targeted as clues to identify the profile of the offender. For example, when law enforcement was searching for the Green River Killer (later identified to be Gary Ridgway) in Washington State, they suggested that he was a white male with a history of dysfunctional relationships with women. They were proven correct.

Once the criminal is apprehended, the next step is to determine further, specific information about him or her. Items in the offender’s possession and interviews with acquaintances can provide excellent background information. After further information has been ascertained, an interview process can begin based on the information gathered about the criminal.

History of Profiling

One of the first and most high-profile cases of profiling was the attempt by Scotland Yard to find the identity of Jack the Ripper. Doctor Thomas Bond, one of the most celebrated physicians of Victorian London, had, in his capacities as a police surgeon, examined the bodies of the victims. He surmised that the killer was in all likelihood a quiet, eccentric, neatly dressed, middle aged man.

As psychology and sociology developed as academic disciplines in the early 20th Century, their innovations were incorporated into the practice of criminal profiling. Freudian concepts like the Oedipus complex, subconscious drives, and repressed desire all made their way into the vocabulary of criminal investigators.

In 1972, the Behavioral Science Unit was established at the FBI headquarters in Quantico, Virginia. This marked the beginning of profiling as a science, with Howard Teten, Robert Ressler, and Patrick Mullany leading the charge. Forensic psychologist Richard Walter did much to refine the method of profiling in the ‘70s and ‘80s. In 1985, the FBI began the Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (Vi-CAP), a massive database of unsolved crimes that can help investigators establish links between crimes. Since then, collaborations between agencies and extensive research of criminal psychology has contributed to further development of criminal profiling.

Criticisms

The practice of criminal profiling is not without criticism. This criticism comes from disparate sources, including both within and outside law enforcement as well as both within and outside the psychological community.

One of the most persuasive criticisms of criminal profiling is that, while rooted in established practices of psychology and sociology, there is little empirical evidence suggesting that criminal profiles are actually applicable to reality. Indeed, there have been many very public instances of profiling failing to correctly predict the nature of an offender. For instance, the Beltway Sniper in the DC metropolitan area in 2002 was predicted to be a solitary middle aged white male. In reality, the sniper was actually two young black males. Some elements of profiling are less controversial in this regard; few people question that a serial killer’s murder of multiple people in a short time span in distant locations indicates a high degree of mobility.

Another suggestion, famously made by journalist Malcolm Gladwell, is that profiling seems more accurate in retrospect. Profiles often are loaded with vague, impressionistic statements that could apply to broad ranges of people. Furthermore, when profiles made during the investigation are compared to the actual profile of the offender, we selectively look at the characteristics that the offender actually possesses.

A third suggestion is that profiling reinforces the notion of a “criminal mind,” when there is little evidence to suggest anything of the sort. Rather, most more and norms of a society are highly variable, so consequently there is no basis on which to suggest the profile of an inherently “normal” or “deviant” mind.

A final criticism is that because many offender profiles are based on just one or two crimes, there isn’t enough of a sample size to draw scientific conclusions. If a criminal has only struck once, we only have a snapshot of the criminal in the very specific time-frame of the crime. This time-frame, furthermore, quite likely won’t reflect the normal state of the criminal.

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Forensic Psychology Salary in US

Forensic Psychology Salary in US

Anyone that is interested in becoming a forensic psychologist should understand the contributing factors that shape the salary of these professionals. The forensic psychologist salary typically varies with the nature and location of the work.

Averages and medians only go so far with regards to the forensic psychology salary. This profession is specialized, the salary is more so dictated on a case by case basis. That being said, there is certainly value in aspiring students reviewing some of the existing trends in this field in order to get a better sense of its trajectory. A big factor in salary is schooling… both the type of degree and whether it is from an accredited or well-respected university.

The average starting forensic psychologist salary for a forensic psychologist is estimated to range from $53,000 to $59,000. Depending on the location, and the nature of the work, starting salaries for these professionals can often range anywhere from $45,000 to $83,000 annually.

The degree earned will also affect the size of forensic psychology salary one is able to earn. Hours vary between a standard nine to five week, working on call or even going away on assignments. Some forensic psychologists choose to be self-employed, often spending some time appearing witness in trials. Others works in labs, police stations, law firms, prisons and the alike.

Forensic psychologists that find work with the state or federal governments typically earn more in the range of $78,000 to $86,000 annually. Like most any career, the more training, degrees and certification accumulated, the opportunities there will be for earning a higher salary.

An extensive commitment to education and science must be upheld in order to have a high level of long-term success in this field. Some forensic psychologists may earn as little as $35,000 annually, while the top earners can earn over $103,000 each year. Experienced forensic psychologist with over a decade of experience usually earn over $80,000 annually.

The federal government is actually one of the top employers for forensic psychologists. The executive branch of the U.S government currently has over 5,000 specialized psychologists on staff. One of the most prominent federal employers of forensic psychologists is the FBI.

As many are aware, forensic psychologists working with the FBI is a popular concept that has been glamorized in the media and entertainment industry during the first decade of this third millennium. The forensic psychology salary working for FBI usually ranges from $35,000 to $82,000 per year.

The best places to earn an upper-tier forensic psychologist salary are generally cities with higher costs of living. Some of the ideal locations for employment opportunities include L.A, D.C and New York. Other major metropolitan areas that have lower costs of living in conjunction with significant opportunities available include Memphis, Atlanta and Detroit.

The state that may pay the highest forensic psychologist salary is Arizona, professionals there earn over $100,000 per year on average.

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Bodily Fluids in Forensic Science and Pathology

Bodily Fluids in Forensic Science and Pathology

There are many different types of bodily fluid that are secreted by the body and are also present within the body at any given time. These fluids may be useful in helping forensic scientists and pathologists put together a detailed picture of how an individual died and likewise may also present means of identifying the perpetrator.

Types of Bodily Fluid

Bodily fluids are broken down into two categories: excreted and secreted.Within these categories you will find the following:

• Excreted: Sweat, Breast Milk, Cerumen (Earwax), Faeces (included because faeces are often covered in a mucus membrane to enable travelling through the bowel), Chyme (found in the stomach), Bile, Vomit, Aqueous Humour (a watery substance that covers the eye), Sebum (Skin Oil)
• Secreted: Cowper's Fluid (Pre-ejaculatory fluid), Blood or Plasma, Semen, Saliva, Female Ejaculate, Serum, or Urine.

Bodily Fluids as Evidence

These varying fluids are to be found contained within the human body and those that are classed as being secreted can be found on or about the body of an individual who has been the victim of a crime.

The most common bodily fluids to be found in these instances are blood, semen, serum, saliva and sometimes - given the severity of the crime - urine or faeces. It is the job of the forensic scientist or Scene of Crime Officer (SOCO) to establish if any of these bodily fluids are present at a crime scene and take the necessary steps to ensure that they are collected.

These fluids - if detected at a crime scene - are swabbed, bagged and collected in vials, which are air tight and at low risk of cross contamination.

In addition, the use of chemicals and ultra violet light can be deployed to uncover the existence of any of these fluids in circumstances where they might be overlooked. Particularly if the crime scene is a darkly lit area or an outdoor area which covers considerable distance.

Also useful to note is the fact that not all bodily fluids contain sufficient information to gain a DNA comparison. This happens when the individual is what is described as a 'non-secretor'. A 'non-secretor' will not have sufficient levels of protein in their bodily fluids to determine a match between blood and bodily fluids found at a crime scene. Of course the percentage of 'non-secretors' among the populous as opposed to 'secretors' is very small indeed.

Another important factor when dealing with a crime scene that may have bodily fluids secreted is that all personnel must be fully clothed in protective clothing to avoid both contamination of the crime scene and potential exposure to blood-borne diseases that may be passed to them via cuts, scrapes and/or ingestion.

Again it is worth considering the risks of infection to all concerned and also looking at how crime scene evidence is collected; without proper quarantine procedures evidence that might be vital to the success of any criminal investigation could - and has on occasion - been inadvertently cross contaminated by the person or persons handling its collection and transportation. Of course these instances are rare but it is vital that every care is taken to ensure that this is not the case.

As well as bodily fluids the forensic scientist - and/or Scenes of Crime Officer (SOCO) will look for trace evidence such as skin particles, hairs, fingernails and anything else that might have been in contact with an attacker or assailant.


Reproduced courtesy of www.ExploreForensics.co.uk - forensic science, crime scene investigations and pathology

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Forensic Pathology

Forensic Pathology

Forensic Pathology Description:
Forensic pathologists, or medical examiners, are specially trained physicians who examine the bodies of people who died suddenly, unexpectedly, or violently.  The forensic pathologist is responsible for determining the cause (the ultimate and immediate reasons for the cessation of life) and manner of death (homicide, suicide, accidental, natural, or unknown).
To determine the identity of the victim and the time, manner and cause of death, the forensic pathologist:

• studies the medical history,
• evaluates crime scene evidence including witness statements,
• performs an autopsy to uncover evidence of injury or disease, and
• collects medical and trace evidence from the body for further analysis.

In addition to anatomy, the forensic pathologist may draw upon specialized knowledge and training in:

• toxicology
• firearms/ballistics
• trace evidence
• serology (blood analysis), and
• DNA technology. 

A forensic pathologist may be appointed as a Medical Examiner by a legal jurisdiction such as a city, county or state.
Clinical forensic pathologists examine living patients, usually in cases where sexual assault or abuse is suspected.
Once all the evidence is analyzed, the forensic pathologist prepares a written report, and may also testify to these findings in court.

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Types of Cases in which Fiber and Hair may be of Value as Evidence

Types of Cases in which Fiber and Hair may be of Value As Evidence

Many crimes involve direct physical contact between victim and suspect. Whenever such contact occurs, there is frequently an inadvertent transfer of microscopic evidence. This evidence transfer is usually hairs and fibers. However, this type of evidence, which can be microscopic in form, may often be overlooked by investigating officers because it is not easily observed. Even though the most commonly encountered fibers are white and/or blue polyester, cotton, or blends of these, this type of
evidence should be collected and submitted for evaluation.

Types of Cases in which Fiber and Hair may be of Value as Evidence

Assault/Rape/Homicide - these types of crimes usually involve personal contact of some sort.
Therefore, fibers and hairs may be interchanged between victim and suspect and/or their respective environments and apparel. Weapons and fingernail scrapings also may be important sources of fiber evidence. Bindings, such as rope, may also leave distinct fibers if a person was tied up.

Burglary - Clothing fibers will frequently be found at the point where the burglar may have been forced to crawl through a window or other opening. If no head covering was used, hair may also be found.

Hit-and-Run - Due to the forceful contact between victim and automobile, clothing fibers and hair can generally be found adhering to the fenders, grill, door handles, or parts of the undercarriage. Fabric impression patterns may also be observed on surfaces with which the fabric may have impacted.

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Increasing Crime Scene Integrity by Creating Multiple Security Levels

Increasing Crime Scene Integrity by Creating Multiple Security Levels 

by Greg Dagnan

(Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice Missouri Southern State University)

I was a newly promoted detective for the Joplin Police Department. I really wanted to learn the ropes quickly, but this not what I had in mind. With 7 homicides in one year, we faced what constituted a crime wave for our small community. I stood in the doorway of one of these murder scenes, the beating death and robbery of a retired gentleman. Inside the house was a badly beaten murder victim; outside the house, but inside the yellow tape was a number of officers that equaled the population of a small city. The Chief was inside for an update, one detective was eating lunch, and a couple of cops were smoking. Officers were standing around talking. Some with only the jokes and usual speculation, but others were having meetings and discussing investigative possibilities. That was standard operating procedure then for Joplin PD, a Police Department of about 70 Officers and 50,000 citizens in Joplin, MO. We often faced big city crime without big city resources. We were seen as a very professional and progressive department, yet such a lack of crime scene integrity was normal operating procedure. Why? Officers were inside the tape to hide from the media, onlookers and curious gore chasers. They were careful not to disturb any obvious evidence, but shouldn't there be a better way to handle large scale scenes? The solution that I now teach to cops and college students is Multi-Level Containment. You may have seen large agencies use this technique, but you may not understand the value for all agencies faced with important crime scenes. Here is how your agency can insure crime scene integrity while conserving manpower and budget dollars:

First level containment: The most basic and superficial containment, this is the crime scene tape that surrounds the crime scene itself. The first level is usually determined by responding patrol officers and perhaps modified slightly after the initial chaos dies or the investigators show up. Properly done, this level of containment surrounds all places where evidence might be, with a bit more for extra insurance. Make sure to remember possible areas of entrance and egress by the suspect as these are the most commonly forgotten when containing a crime scene. Regrettably, first level containment is all the protection most crime scenes get. As illustrated earlier this just doesn't cut it for the big scenes because everyone does everything inside the tape.

Secondary Containment: Though taking security to a higher level, this is not as complicated as it sounds. When crime scene processing officers arrive, they put up a second barrier of crime scene tape that completely surrounds the first level making a buffer zone. The secondary level solves several problems: Officers and Command staff have a place to meet where they cannot be bothered by civilians. Equipment can be stored in this secondary area and even makeshift desks made from folding tables can be erected. If you have some sort of crime scene vehicle it can be parked in this area and the area can serve as an established place for taking breaks and for crime scene trash. Your crime scene log is should be kept in this area and signed only by those who enter the first level or it can be signed by officers as they enter the second level. The latter option is still advantageous as officers will not have to leave the scene for equipment and breaks, so there will be a lot less signing in and out. Hopefully there will be no evidence discovered in this level if the first level was properly placed. However, if you do find something (like a footwear or tire impression) outside the first level but still inside the second level, having it within a protected area could still save officers considerable explanations in court. If you can not completely surround the first level with a second level, don't worry; the idea is that you find some place that adjoins the first level for you to cordon off for your purposes. As long as the first level of containment is well secured, a small adjoining secondary level could meet your needs without it having to completely surround the first.

Perimeter Containment: This third level is where is where manpower and vehicles come in to play. Perimeter containment is done at most scenes to varying levels. This perimeter is created with barricades and police vehicles set up around the secondary tape. Roads are blocked to keep unauthorized vehicles away from the crime scene and foot traffic routed elsewhere. This level may be tighter if you have media trucks trying to get as close as possible and civilians trying to get right up to the crime scene tape. Man power needs vary depending upon how much foot traffic and unauthorized vehicles you are trying to keep out and how many access points that you have for authorized vehicles. The point of perimeter containment is that you keep your first and second level of containment more secure by insuring that unauthorized personnel will not be close enough to intrude upon your crime scene.

At your next big scene secure at least two levels of containment. Your Lieutenant will have a place to eat his burger without being asked for an interview from the local NBC Affiliate. Multi-Level containment is an effective tool for solving a common problem. Sometimes the best solutions are also the most simple.

source: http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/MultilevelContainment.html

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DNA, The Next Generation Technology is Here!

DNA, The Next Generation
Technology is Here!

by Mike Byrd

Miami-Dade Police Department
Crime Scene Investigations
The importance of a proper and effective approach to processing a crime scene should never be taken for granted.
Over the past two decades in the field of ever-changing technology the most significant advances have been introduced into the analytical (laboratory examination of physical evidence) fields. It is important for the crime scene investigator or evidence recovery technician to be well read and keep abreast of these ever-changing techniques and methods in technology. We have to be aware and prepared to answer to the challenge.
What the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) has done for fingerprint identification, The National Firearms and Projectile Database (DRUGFIRE) is doing for firearms identification, and now The Combined DNA Index Systems (CODIS) is having a dramatic influence on the comparison of blood and other tissue identification. The old standard serological testing labs are giving way to the new modern Forensic Biology section.
Until recently the issues of scrutiny and challenge in DNA technology was the laboratory analysis procedures. However that is about to change dramatically with a national standardization system in place. The sensitivity of this new exciting technology will pivot the focus and attention more to the on scene physical evidence collection and recovery methods and procedures. That is where we the crime scene investigators and evidence recovery technicians have to be prepared to step up and tone our basic skills and knowledge to assure that we do everything possible to be a successful link in the investigation process.
I recently had the opportunity to attend a presentation entitled "The Next Generation". The presentation dealt with the most recent advances in DNA technology. This exciting state-of-the-art technology is described as Short Tandem Repeats (STR's). The following information came from that presentation.

Length of testing results

• Many of the results from this new procedure will be available in just a few days.
  
• The finished reports will be completed in several weeks as opposed to several months with the current procedures.
  

Technical Advantages of the new procedure

• It will produce the results on small and/or degraded samples.
  
• The system can be automated.
  
• It is a very powerful discriminator and can result in identifications.
  

Assistance as an investigative tool

• This procedure can produce results on unsolved as well as unsubject cases.
  
• It can link serial cases.
  
• The results can be matched to a national DNA felon database of samples.
  

DNA identity statistics given

• In 1997, The FBI defined a likelihood of a random match to be less than one in 260 billion to be an exact match.
  
• The statistics obtained from DNA analysis can now be used to identify one individual to the exclusion of all others.
  

Human Identifications

• Parentage testing.
  
• Forensic DNA casework.
  
• Felon database.
  
• Archeological remains.
  

How does this effect us in the field

• We will still be doing the same functions as before. We just now have been made aware of the sensitivity this new procedure will bring to the field and the precautions that we will have to take in order to properly document, handle, collect and preserve items of evidence. Our attention will need to focused on quality control and quality assurance.
  

Types of Biological evidence

• blood
• semen
• tissue
• bones
• teeth
• hair
• nails
• saliva

Safety

• As with any other duties in crime scene work, safety is always a priority. The appropriate protective equipment and procedures effecting self contamination should be observed. The investigator/technician should avoid any direct contact with the evidence. No eating or drinking should occur on the scene.
  

Items that effect DNA

• Some of the contaminates that will effect the DNA typing process are dirt, grease, and even some fabric dyes.
  

Scene Documentation

• After evaluating the scene the documentation still remains an important stage in the processing procedure. Photographs should be taken from every angle regardless of indoor or outdoor scene location.
  
• For walls or areas that have spattered or cast off blood patterns. Turn the camera to its side to get a vertical format allowing a series of photographs of the wall to be taken depicting a view from the ceiling to the floor.
  
• After the blood scene has been thoroughly photographed in its uninterrupted state. The investigator/technician can then use scales, alpha-numeric evidence markers, cones, and stick on letters or numbers which can be inserted for your series of special techniques photographs with the ID markers in place.
  

Collection techniques

• In standard crime scene procedure, the recovery of blood samples is accomplished by scrapping, swabbing, or collection of the stained item itself.
  
• A scalpel is used to scrape the stain onto a clean piece of paper, evidence envelope, or kem-wipe sterile tissue. After each scrapping the scalpel needs to be cleaned, so as not to contaminate the next sample.
  
• The stain can be swabbed by using a sterile cotton patch or cotton swab slightly moistened with distilled water.
  
• If the stained item can be collected it should be packaged in a clean paper container or wrap. If the stain is wet, the stain has to be allowed to air dry before packaging.
  
• All items should be consistently labeled with the appropriate information for identification.
  

In a news release dated September 17,1998

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police announced that samples collected from air crash victim's of Swissair flight 111, in Nova Scotia, DNA patterns representing 142 people (75 males, 67 females) have been established. The RCMP demonstrated that forensic DNA analysis is an effective tool for disaster identification and in some cases may be the only source of identification.

source:http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/dna.html

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