Forensic Psychology - Criminal Profiling Guide

Forensic Psychology - Criminal Profiling Guide


 Profiling Definition

The first task of profiling is estimating the psychological and sociological characteristics of a criminal. The reader may be familiar with this practice from film and television– movies like Silence of the Lambs and Seven have prominently featured this type of profiling. Criminal investigators use evidence collected from the crime scene, the nature of the crime, the location of the crime scene, and the type of victims being targeted as clues to identify the profile of the offender. For example, when law enforcement was searching for the Green River Killer (later identified to be Gary Ridgway) in Washington State, they suggested that he was a white male with a history of dysfunctional relationships with women. They were proven correct.

Once the criminal is apprehended, the next step is to determine further, specific information about him or her. Items in the offender’s possession and interviews with acquaintances can provide excellent background information. After further information has been ascertained, an interview process can begin based on the information gathered about the criminal.

History of Profiling

One of the first and most high-profile cases of profiling was the attempt by Scotland Yard to find the identity of Jack the Ripper. Doctor Thomas Bond, one of the most celebrated physicians of Victorian London, had, in his capacities as a police surgeon, examined the bodies of the victims. He surmised that the killer was in all likelihood a quiet, eccentric, neatly dressed, middle aged man.

As psychology and sociology developed as academic disciplines in the early 20th Century, their innovations were incorporated into the practice of criminal profiling. Freudian concepts like the Oedipus complex, subconscious drives, and repressed desire all made their way into the vocabulary of criminal investigators.

In 1972, the Behavioral Science Unit was established at the FBI headquarters in Quantico, Virginia. This marked the beginning of profiling as a science, with Howard Teten, Robert Ressler, and Patrick Mullany leading the charge. Forensic psychologist Richard Walter did much to refine the method of profiling in the ‘70s and ‘80s. In 1985, the FBI began the Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (Vi-CAP), a massive database of unsolved crimes that can help investigators establish links between crimes. Since then, collaborations between agencies and extensive research of criminal psychology has contributed to further development of criminal profiling.

Criticisms

The practice of criminal profiling is not without criticism. This criticism comes from disparate sources, including both within and outside law enforcement as well as both within and outside the psychological community.

One of the most persuasive criticisms of criminal profiling is that, while rooted in established practices of psychology and sociology, there is little empirical evidence suggesting that criminal profiles are actually applicable to reality. Indeed, there have been many very public instances of profiling failing to correctly predict the nature of an offender. For instance, the Beltway Sniper in the DC metropolitan area in 2002 was predicted to be a solitary middle aged white male. In reality, the sniper was actually two young black males. Some elements of profiling are less controversial in this regard; few people question that a serial killer’s murder of multiple people in a short time span in distant locations indicates a high degree of mobility.

Another suggestion, famously made by journalist Malcolm Gladwell, is that profiling seems more accurate in retrospect. Profiles often are loaded with vague, impressionistic statements that could apply to broad ranges of people. Furthermore, when profiles made during the investigation are compared to the actual profile of the offender, we selectively look at the characteristics that the offender actually possesses.

A third suggestion is that profiling reinforces the notion of a “criminal mind,” when there is little evidence to suggest anything of the sort. Rather, most more and norms of a society are highly variable, so consequently there is no basis on which to suggest the profile of an inherently “normal” or “deviant” mind.

A final criticism is that because many offender profiles are based on just one or two crimes, there isn’t enough of a sample size to draw scientific conclusions. If a criminal has only struck once, we only have a snapshot of the criminal in the very specific time-frame of the crime. This time-frame, furthermore, quite likely won’t reflect the normal state of the criminal.

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Forensic Psychology Salary in US

Forensic Psychology Salary in US

Anyone that is interested in becoming a forensic psychologist should understand the contributing factors that shape the salary of these professionals. The forensic psychologist salary typically varies with the nature and location of the work.

Averages and medians only go so far with regards to the forensic psychology salary. This profession is specialized, the salary is more so dictated on a case by case basis. That being said, there is certainly value in aspiring students reviewing some of the existing trends in this field in order to get a better sense of its trajectory. A big factor in salary is schooling… both the type of degree and whether it is from an accredited or well-respected university.

The average starting forensic psychologist salary for a forensic psychologist is estimated to range from $53,000 to $59,000. Depending on the location, and the nature of the work, starting salaries for these professionals can often range anywhere from $45,000 to $83,000 annually.

The degree earned will also affect the size of forensic psychology salary one is able to earn. Hours vary between a standard nine to five week, working on call or even going away on assignments. Some forensic psychologists choose to be self-employed, often spending some time appearing witness in trials. Others works in labs, police stations, law firms, prisons and the alike.

Forensic psychologists that find work with the state or federal governments typically earn more in the range of $78,000 to $86,000 annually. Like most any career, the more training, degrees and certification accumulated, the opportunities there will be for earning a higher salary.

An extensive commitment to education and science must be upheld in order to have a high level of long-term success in this field. Some forensic psychologists may earn as little as $35,000 annually, while the top earners can earn over $103,000 each year. Experienced forensic psychologist with over a decade of experience usually earn over $80,000 annually.

The federal government is actually one of the top employers for forensic psychologists. The executive branch of the U.S government currently has over 5,000 specialized psychologists on staff. One of the most prominent federal employers of forensic psychologists is the FBI.

As many are aware, forensic psychologists working with the FBI is a popular concept that has been glamorized in the media and entertainment industry during the first decade of this third millennium. The forensic psychology salary working for FBI usually ranges from $35,000 to $82,000 per year.

The best places to earn an upper-tier forensic psychologist salary are generally cities with higher costs of living. Some of the ideal locations for employment opportunities include L.A, D.C and New York. Other major metropolitan areas that have lower costs of living in conjunction with significant opportunities available include Memphis, Atlanta and Detroit.

The state that may pay the highest forensic psychologist salary is Arizona, professionals there earn over $100,000 per year on average.

source 

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Bodily Fluids in Forensic Science and Pathology

Bodily Fluids in Forensic Science and Pathology

There are many different types of bodily fluid that are secreted by the body and are also present within the body at any given time. These fluids may be useful in helping forensic scientists and pathologists put together a detailed picture of how an individual died and likewise may also present means of identifying the perpetrator.

Types of Bodily Fluid

Bodily fluids are broken down into two categories: excreted and secreted.Within these categories you will find the following:

• Excreted: Sweat, Breast Milk, Cerumen (Earwax), Faeces (included because faeces are often covered in a mucus membrane to enable travelling through the bowel), Chyme (found in the stomach), Bile, Vomit, Aqueous Humour (a watery substance that covers the eye), Sebum (Skin Oil)
• Secreted: Cowper's Fluid (Pre-ejaculatory fluid), Blood or Plasma, Semen, Saliva, Female Ejaculate, Serum, or Urine.

Bodily Fluids as Evidence

These varying fluids are to be found contained within the human body and those that are classed as being secreted can be found on or about the body of an individual who has been the victim of a crime.

The most common bodily fluids to be found in these instances are blood, semen, serum, saliva and sometimes - given the severity of the crime - urine or faeces. It is the job of the forensic scientist or Scene of Crime Officer (SOCO) to establish if any of these bodily fluids are present at a crime scene and take the necessary steps to ensure that they are collected.

These fluids - if detected at a crime scene - are swabbed, bagged and collected in vials, which are air tight and at low risk of cross contamination.

In addition, the use of chemicals and ultra violet light can be deployed to uncover the existence of any of these fluids in circumstances where they might be overlooked. Particularly if the crime scene is a darkly lit area or an outdoor area which covers considerable distance.

Also useful to note is the fact that not all bodily fluids contain sufficient information to gain a DNA comparison. This happens when the individual is what is described as a 'non-secretor'. A 'non-secretor' will not have sufficient levels of protein in their bodily fluids to determine a match between blood and bodily fluids found at a crime scene. Of course the percentage of 'non-secretors' among the populous as opposed to 'secretors' is very small indeed.

Another important factor when dealing with a crime scene that may have bodily fluids secreted is that all personnel must be fully clothed in protective clothing to avoid both contamination of the crime scene and potential exposure to blood-borne diseases that may be passed to them via cuts, scrapes and/or ingestion.

Again it is worth considering the risks of infection to all concerned and also looking at how crime scene evidence is collected; without proper quarantine procedures evidence that might be vital to the success of any criminal investigation could - and has on occasion - been inadvertently cross contaminated by the person or persons handling its collection and transportation. Of course these instances are rare but it is vital that every care is taken to ensure that this is not the case.

As well as bodily fluids the forensic scientist - and/or Scenes of Crime Officer (SOCO) will look for trace evidence such as skin particles, hairs, fingernails and anything else that might have been in contact with an attacker or assailant.


Reproduced courtesy of www.ExploreForensics.co.uk - forensic science, crime scene investigations and pathology

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Forensic Pathology

Forensic Pathology

Forensic Pathology Description:
Forensic pathologists, or medical examiners, are specially trained physicians who examine the bodies of people who died suddenly, unexpectedly, or violently.  The forensic pathologist is responsible for determining the cause (the ultimate and immediate reasons for the cessation of life) and manner of death (homicide, suicide, accidental, natural, or unknown).
To determine the identity of the victim and the time, manner and cause of death, the forensic pathologist:

• studies the medical history,
• evaluates crime scene evidence including witness statements,
• performs an autopsy to uncover evidence of injury or disease, and
• collects medical and trace evidence from the body for further analysis.

In addition to anatomy, the forensic pathologist may draw upon specialized knowledge and training in:

• toxicology
• firearms/ballistics
• trace evidence
• serology (blood analysis), and
• DNA technology. 

A forensic pathologist may be appointed as a Medical Examiner by a legal jurisdiction such as a city, county or state.
Clinical forensic pathologists examine living patients, usually in cases where sexual assault or abuse is suspected.
Once all the evidence is analyzed, the forensic pathologist prepares a written report, and may also testify to these findings in court.

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Types of Cases in which Fiber and Hair may be of Value as Evidence

Types of Cases in which Fiber and Hair may be of Value As Evidence

Many crimes involve direct physical contact between victim and suspect. Whenever such contact occurs, there is frequently an inadvertent transfer of microscopic evidence. This evidence transfer is usually hairs and fibers. However, this type of evidence, which can be microscopic in form, may often be overlooked by investigating officers because it is not easily observed. Even though the most commonly encountered fibers are white and/or blue polyester, cotton, or blends of these, this type of
evidence should be collected and submitted for evaluation.

Types of Cases in which Fiber and Hair may be of Value as Evidence

Assault/Rape/Homicide - these types of crimes usually involve personal contact of some sort.
Therefore, fibers and hairs may be interchanged between victim and suspect and/or their respective environments and apparel. Weapons and fingernail scrapings also may be important sources of fiber evidence. Bindings, such as rope, may also leave distinct fibers if a person was tied up.

Burglary - Clothing fibers will frequently be found at the point where the burglar may have been forced to crawl through a window or other opening. If no head covering was used, hair may also be found.

Hit-and-Run - Due to the forceful contact between victim and automobile, clothing fibers and hair can generally be found adhering to the fenders, grill, door handles, or parts of the undercarriage. Fabric impression patterns may also be observed on surfaces with which the fabric may have impacted.

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Increasing Crime Scene Integrity by Creating Multiple Security Levels

Increasing Crime Scene Integrity by Creating Multiple Security Levels 

by Greg Dagnan

(Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice Missouri Southern State University)

I was a newly promoted detective for the Joplin Police Department. I really wanted to learn the ropes quickly, but this not what I had in mind. With 7 homicides in one year, we faced what constituted a crime wave for our small community. I stood in the doorway of one of these murder scenes, the beating death and robbery of a retired gentleman. Inside the house was a badly beaten murder victim; outside the house, but inside the yellow tape was a number of officers that equaled the population of a small city. The Chief was inside for an update, one detective was eating lunch, and a couple of cops were smoking. Officers were standing around talking. Some with only the jokes and usual speculation, but others were having meetings and discussing investigative possibilities. That was standard operating procedure then for Joplin PD, a Police Department of about 70 Officers and 50,000 citizens in Joplin, MO. We often faced big city crime without big city resources. We were seen as a very professional and progressive department, yet such a lack of crime scene integrity was normal operating procedure. Why? Officers were inside the tape to hide from the media, onlookers and curious gore chasers. They were careful not to disturb any obvious evidence, but shouldn't there be a better way to handle large scale scenes? The solution that I now teach to cops and college students is Multi-Level Containment. You may have seen large agencies use this technique, but you may not understand the value for all agencies faced with important crime scenes. Here is how your agency can insure crime scene integrity while conserving manpower and budget dollars:

First level containment: The most basic and superficial containment, this is the crime scene tape that surrounds the crime scene itself. The first level is usually determined by responding patrol officers and perhaps modified slightly after the initial chaos dies or the investigators show up. Properly done, this level of containment surrounds all places where evidence might be, with a bit more for extra insurance. Make sure to remember possible areas of entrance and egress by the suspect as these are the most commonly forgotten when containing a crime scene. Regrettably, first level containment is all the protection most crime scenes get. As illustrated earlier this just doesn't cut it for the big scenes because everyone does everything inside the tape.

Secondary Containment: Though taking security to a higher level, this is not as complicated as it sounds. When crime scene processing officers arrive, they put up a second barrier of crime scene tape that completely surrounds the first level making a buffer zone. The secondary level solves several problems: Officers and Command staff have a place to meet where they cannot be bothered by civilians. Equipment can be stored in this secondary area and even makeshift desks made from folding tables can be erected. If you have some sort of crime scene vehicle it can be parked in this area and the area can serve as an established place for taking breaks and for crime scene trash. Your crime scene log is should be kept in this area and signed only by those who enter the first level or it can be signed by officers as they enter the second level. The latter option is still advantageous as officers will not have to leave the scene for equipment and breaks, so there will be a lot less signing in and out. Hopefully there will be no evidence discovered in this level if the first level was properly placed. However, if you do find something (like a footwear or tire impression) outside the first level but still inside the second level, having it within a protected area could still save officers considerable explanations in court. If you can not completely surround the first level with a second level, don't worry; the idea is that you find some place that adjoins the first level for you to cordon off for your purposes. As long as the first level of containment is well secured, a small adjoining secondary level could meet your needs without it having to completely surround the first.

Perimeter Containment: This third level is where is where manpower and vehicles come in to play. Perimeter containment is done at most scenes to varying levels. This perimeter is created with barricades and police vehicles set up around the secondary tape. Roads are blocked to keep unauthorized vehicles away from the crime scene and foot traffic routed elsewhere. This level may be tighter if you have media trucks trying to get as close as possible and civilians trying to get right up to the crime scene tape. Man power needs vary depending upon how much foot traffic and unauthorized vehicles you are trying to keep out and how many access points that you have for authorized vehicles. The point of perimeter containment is that you keep your first and second level of containment more secure by insuring that unauthorized personnel will not be close enough to intrude upon your crime scene.

At your next big scene secure at least two levels of containment. Your Lieutenant will have a place to eat his burger without being asked for an interview from the local NBC Affiliate. Multi-Level containment is an effective tool for solving a common problem. Sometimes the best solutions are also the most simple.

source: http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/MultilevelContainment.html

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DNA, The Next Generation Technology is Here!

DNA, The Next Generation
Technology is Here!

by Mike Byrd

Miami-Dade Police Department
Crime Scene Investigations
The importance of a proper and effective approach to processing a crime scene should never be taken for granted.
Over the past two decades in the field of ever-changing technology the most significant advances have been introduced into the analytical (laboratory examination of physical evidence) fields. It is important for the crime scene investigator or evidence recovery technician to be well read and keep abreast of these ever-changing techniques and methods in technology. We have to be aware and prepared to answer to the challenge.
What the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) has done for fingerprint identification, The National Firearms and Projectile Database (DRUGFIRE) is doing for firearms identification, and now The Combined DNA Index Systems (CODIS) is having a dramatic influence on the comparison of blood and other tissue identification. The old standard serological testing labs are giving way to the new modern Forensic Biology section.
Until recently the issues of scrutiny and challenge in DNA technology was the laboratory analysis procedures. However that is about to change dramatically with a national standardization system in place. The sensitivity of this new exciting technology will pivot the focus and attention more to the on scene physical evidence collection and recovery methods and procedures. That is where we the crime scene investigators and evidence recovery technicians have to be prepared to step up and tone our basic skills and knowledge to assure that we do everything possible to be a successful link in the investigation process.
I recently had the opportunity to attend a presentation entitled "The Next Generation". The presentation dealt with the most recent advances in DNA technology. This exciting state-of-the-art technology is described as Short Tandem Repeats (STR's). The following information came from that presentation.

Length of testing results

• Many of the results from this new procedure will be available in just a few days.
  
• The finished reports will be completed in several weeks as opposed to several months with the current procedures.
  

Technical Advantages of the new procedure

• It will produce the results on small and/or degraded samples.
  
• The system can be automated.
  
• It is a very powerful discriminator and can result in identifications.
  

Assistance as an investigative tool

• This procedure can produce results on unsolved as well as unsubject cases.
  
• It can link serial cases.
  
• The results can be matched to a national DNA felon database of samples.
  

DNA identity statistics given

• In 1997, The FBI defined a likelihood of a random match to be less than one in 260 billion to be an exact match.
  
• The statistics obtained from DNA analysis can now be used to identify one individual to the exclusion of all others.
  

Human Identifications

• Parentage testing.
  
• Forensic DNA casework.
  
• Felon database.
  
• Archeological remains.
  

How does this effect us in the field

• We will still be doing the same functions as before. We just now have been made aware of the sensitivity this new procedure will bring to the field and the precautions that we will have to take in order to properly document, handle, collect and preserve items of evidence. Our attention will need to focused on quality control and quality assurance.
  

Types of Biological evidence

• blood
• semen
• tissue
• bones
• teeth
• hair
• nails
• saliva

Safety

• As with any other duties in crime scene work, safety is always a priority. The appropriate protective equipment and procedures effecting self contamination should be observed. The investigator/technician should avoid any direct contact with the evidence. No eating or drinking should occur on the scene.
  

Items that effect DNA

• Some of the contaminates that will effect the DNA typing process are dirt, grease, and even some fabric dyes.
  

Scene Documentation

• After evaluating the scene the documentation still remains an important stage in the processing procedure. Photographs should be taken from every angle regardless of indoor or outdoor scene location.
  
• For walls or areas that have spattered or cast off blood patterns. Turn the camera to its side to get a vertical format allowing a series of photographs of the wall to be taken depicting a view from the ceiling to the floor.
  
• After the blood scene has been thoroughly photographed in its uninterrupted state. The investigator/technician can then use scales, alpha-numeric evidence markers, cones, and stick on letters or numbers which can be inserted for your series of special techniques photographs with the ID markers in place.
  

Collection techniques

• In standard crime scene procedure, the recovery of blood samples is accomplished by scrapping, swabbing, or collection of the stained item itself.
  
• A scalpel is used to scrape the stain onto a clean piece of paper, evidence envelope, or kem-wipe sterile tissue. After each scrapping the scalpel needs to be cleaned, so as not to contaminate the next sample.
  
• The stain can be swabbed by using a sterile cotton patch or cotton swab slightly moistened with distilled water.
  
• If the stained item can be collected it should be packaged in a clean paper container or wrap. If the stain is wet, the stain has to be allowed to air dry before packaging.
  
• All items should be consistently labeled with the appropriate information for identification.
  

In a news release dated September 17,1998

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police announced that samples collected from air crash victim's of Swissair flight 111, in Nova Scotia, DNA patterns representing 142 people (75 males, 67 females) have been established. The RCMP demonstrated that forensic DNA analysis is an effective tool for disaster identification and in some cases may be the only source of identification.

source:http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/dna.html

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